Valentinian III, born as Placidus Valentinianus on July 2, 419, ruled as the Western Roman Emperor from 425 to 455. His reign, beginning in childhood, was one of the longest of any Western Roman emperor, spanning three decades. However, his time on the throne was marked by political instability, civil wars among powerful generals, and the onslaught of barbarian invasions that characterized late antiquity’s Migration Period. Valentinian III’s reign is often seen as a period of decline for the Western Roman Empire, as the emperor struggled to maintain control amidst a rapidly changing world.
In this article, we will explore the life and reign of Valentinian III, examining his early years, the challenges he faced from rival generals, and the external pressures from barbarian groups that threatened the very existence of the Western Roman Empire. We will also discuss his relationship with key figures such as his mother Galla Placidia, the influential general Aetius, and the Vandal king Gaiseric, and how these relationships shaped his rule and ultimately contributed to the fate of the empire.
Early Life and Rise to Power
Family Background and Birth
Valentinian III was born on July 2, 419, in Ravenna, the capital of the Western Roman Empire. He was the son of Constantius III, who briefly served as co-emperor of the Western Roman Empire, and Galla Placidia, the daughter of Theodosius I. Valentinian was therefore part of the Theodosian dynasty, which had ruled the Roman Empire since the late 4th century. His family background gave him a legitimate claim to the throne, but his early years were marked by political turmoil and uncertainty.
When Valentinian was just a toddler, his father Constantius III died in 421. Galla Placidia, who was left to care for her young son, fled to Constantinople in 423 due to tensions with her half-brother, Emperor Honorius. After the death of Honorius in 423, the Western Roman Empire was left without a clear successor, and a power struggle ensued. During this time, Joannes, a high-ranking official, was declared emperor by a faction of the Roman military, but his rule was not recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire.
The Role of Theodosius II and Galla Placidia
In 424, the Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II, who was Valentinian’s cousin, decided to intervene in the affairs of the Western Roman Empire. Theodosius II proclaimed Valentinian III as the rightful heir to the Western throne and sent an army, led by the generals Ardaburius and Aspar, to depose Joannes and install Valentinian as emperor. With the support of the Eastern Roman forces, Joannes was defeated, and Valentinian was officially declared emperor in 425 at the age of six.
Galla Placidia served as regent for her young son during the early years of his reign. She was a formidable and capable leader who worked to maintain stability in the Western Roman Empire while facing numerous challenges, including internal power struggles and the threat of barbarian invasions. Galla Placidia’s regency was a crucial factor in ensuring that Valentinian’s claim to the throne was secure during his formative years.
The Reign of Valentinian III
The Influence of Aetius
One of the most influential figures during the reign of Valentinian III was Flavius Aetius, a powerful general who played a key role in defending the Western Roman Empire from external threats. Aetius, often referred to as the “last of the Romans,” was a skilled military commander who had spent much of his early career navigating the complex political landscape of the Roman Empire. He became the de facto ruler of the Western Roman Empire, wielding significant power and influence over the young emperor.
Aetius’s military prowess was instrumental in repelling the numerous barbarian invasions that threatened the empire during Valentinian’s reign. He successfully fought against the Visigoths, the Franks, and the Burgundians, among others, and managed to keep the Huns at bay for a time. Aetius’s most notable achievement was his victory at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451, where he led a coalition of Roman and barbarian forces to defeat Attila the Hun. This victory was a major turning point in halting the advance of the Huns into Western Europe.
Despite his successes, Aetius’s relationship with Valentinian III was complex and often fraught with tension. Aetius’s growing power and influence made him a potential threat to the emperor, and Valentinian, who was increasingly distrustful of his general, began to view Aetius as a rival rather than an ally.
The Assassination of Aetius
In 454, Valentinian III took drastic action to eliminate what he perceived as a threat to his authority. On September 21, 454, during a meeting in the imperial palace, Valentinian personally assassinated Aetius, with the help of a group of loyal followers. The murder of Aetius was a turning point in Valentinian’s reign, as it removed the empire’s most capable military leader at a time when the Western Roman Empire was facing significant external threats.
The assassination of Aetius had far-reaching consequences for the Western Roman Empire. With Aetius gone, there was no one left with the military expertise or authority to defend the empire effectively. The power vacuum created by Aetius’s death led to further instability, and many of Aetius’s former supporters turned against Valentinian, viewing the emperor’s actions as a betrayal of Rome’s best interests.
Conflict with the Vandals
The Rise of the Vandals
One of the most significant threats to the Western Roman Empire during Valentinian III’s reign was the rise of the Vandals. The Vandals, a Germanic tribe led by King Gaiseric, had crossed into North Africa in 429 and gradually established a kingdom there. By 439, the Vandals had captured Carthage, one of the most important cities in the Western Roman Empire and a crucial center of trade and agriculture.
The loss of North Africa was a major blow to the Western Roman Empire, as it deprived the empire of a vital source of grain and other resources. Gaiseric’s Vandals also posed a significant threat to Roman shipping in the Mediterranean, as they used their control of North Africa to launch raids against Roman territories and disrupt trade routes.
The Sack of Rome in 455
The relationship between Valentinian III and Gaiseric was further complicated by a broken marriage alliance. Valentinian’s daughter, Eudocia, had been betrothed to Gaiseric’s son, Huneric, as part of a diplomatic agreement between the Romans and the Vandals. However, Valentinian later broke off the engagement, which angered Gaiseric and led to increased hostilities between the two powers.
In 455, shortly after Valentinian’s assassination, Gaiseric and his Vandals launched an attack on Rome. On June 2, 455, the Vandals entered the city and sacked it, looting its treasures and taking many of its inhabitants as captives. Unlike the Visigoths’ sack of Rome in 410, the Vandals’ sack was more systematic and destructive, further highlighting the weakened state of the Western Roman Empire.
The Later Years and Assassination of Valentinian III
Decline of Authority
By the later years of Valentinian III’s reign, the Western Roman Empire was in a state of rapid decline. The constant pressure from barbarian invasions, coupled with internal power struggles and economic instability, left the empire weakened and vulnerable. Valentinian’s inability to provide strong leadership during this critical period further eroded the authority of the central government, and many of the empire’s provinces were effectively lost to barbarian control.
Valentinian’s assassination of Aetius had left the empire without a capable military leader, and his failure to address the underlying issues facing the empire contributed to its decline. The Western Roman Empire was increasingly reliant on barbarian foederati—tribes that were granted land in exchange for military service—but these groups often had their own agendas and were not always loyal to the Roman state.
Assassination of Valentinian III
On March 16, 455, Valentinian III was assassinated in Rome by two of Aetius’s former supporters, Optila and Thraustila. The assassination was reportedly orchestrated by Petronius Maximus, a powerful senator who sought to seize power for himself. Valentinian was killed while watching a military exercise on the Campus Martius, and his death marked the end of the Theodosian dynasty in the Western Roman Empire.
Following Valentinian’s death, Petronius Maximus declared himself emperor, but his reign was short-lived. The Western Roman Empire continued to experience a rapid succession of rulers, each of whom struggled to maintain control over a crumbling state. The instability that had characterized Valentinian’s reign persisted, ultimately leading to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476.
Legacy of Valentinian III
A Long but Troubled Reign
Valentinian III’s reign was one of the longest in the history of the Western Roman Empire, but it was also one of the most troubled. From his early years as a child emperor under the regency of his mother, Galla Placidia, to his later years marked by assassinations and political intrigue, Valentinian’s time on the throne was characterized by a lack of effective leadership and a failure to address the many challenges facing the Western Roman state.
Valentinian’s reliance on powerful generals such as Aetius allowed him to maintain a semblance of stability for a time, but his inability to build a strong central government ultimately contributed to the decline of the Western Roman Empire. The assassination of Aetius, in particular, was a turning point that left the empire without a capable defender at a time when it was most vulnerable to external threats.
The Impact of Barbarian Invasions
The barbarian invasions that occurred during Valentinian III’s reign had a profound impact on the Western Roman Empire. The rise of the Vandals under Gaiseric, the threat posed by Attila the Hun, and the constant pressure from other Germanic tribes all contributed to the erosion of Roman authority in the west. Valentinian’s inability to effectively deal with these threats highlighted the declining power of the Roman state and the increasing influence of barbarian groups within the empire’s borders.
The sack of Rome by the Vandals in 455 was a symbolic event that underscored the weakened state of the Western Roman Empire. The once-mighty city, which had been the heart of the Roman world for centuries, was now vulnerable to attack and plunder by foreign invaders. The sack of Rome further diminished the prestige of the Western Roman government and marked a significant step towards the eventual collapse of the empire.
Conclusion
Valentinian III’s reign as the Western Roman Emperor was a period of immense challenges and difficulties. From his early years under the regency of Galla Placidia to the power struggles with Aetius and the threat of barbarian invasions, Valentinian faced numerous obstacles that tested the resilience of the Western Roman Empire. His inability to provide effective leadership, coupled with the internal and external threats that plagued his reign, ultimately contributed to the decline of the Western Roman state.
While Valentinian III’s legacy is largely one of failure and missed opportunities, his reign also serves as a reflection of the broader challenges faced by the Roman Empire during its final centuries. The struggles and weaknesses of Valentinian’s rule highlight the complex interplay of factors that led to the eventual fall of the Western Roman Empire and the transition to the medieval period in European history.