The Twenty-Seventh Dynasty of Egypt, also known as Dynasty XXVII, the 27th Dynasty, or the First Egyptian Satrapy, was a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire between 525 BC and 404 BC. This period of Egyptian history began with the Achaemenid conquest of Egypt by Cambyses II, the King of Persia, following the Battle of Pelusium in 525 BC. The establishment of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty marked the first time that Egypt became a province, or satrapy, of a foreign empire. The dynasty came to an end with the rebellion of Amyrtaeus, who successfully expelled the Persians and declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt. A second period of Persian rule would later follow under the Thirty-First Dynasty of Egypt.
The Twenty-Seventh Dynasty represents a complex period in Egyptian history, characterized by foreign domination, resistance to Persian rule, and cultural interactions between the Egyptians and the Persians. In this article, we will explore the historical context of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty, provide an overview of each of its rulers, and examine the cultural, political, and economic developments that occurred during this period of Achaemenid control over Egypt.
Historical Background of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty
The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty of Egypt, also known as the Saite Dynasty, was the last native Egyptian dynasty to rule the country before the Persian conquest. In 525 BC, the Persian king Cambyses II launched a military campaign against Egypt, which culminated in the Battle of Pelusium. The Egyptian forces, led by Psamtik III, were defeated, and the Persians captured Memphis, effectively bringing an end to native Egyptian rule.
Following his victory, Cambyses II was crowned as Pharaoh of Egypt, and Egypt became a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. This period of Persian rule is known as the First Egyptian Satrapy, or the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty. The Persians sought to integrate Egypt into their vast empire while also maintaining some aspects of traditional Egyptian governance. The relationship between the Persian rulers and the native Egyptian population was complex, as the Egyptians often resisted foreign rule, and there were several attempts to regain independence during this period.
The Rulers of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty
The Twenty-Seventh Dynasty was ruled by a series of Achaemenid kings who held the title of Pharaoh of Egypt. Below, we provide an overview of each ruler of the dynasty and their significant achievements.
1. Cambyses II (525–522 BC)
Cambyses II, the son of Cyrus the Great, was the founder of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty and the first Persian king to rule as Pharaoh of Egypt. After his victory at the Battle of Pelusium, Cambyses II captured Memphis and was crowned Pharaoh, marking the beginning of the Persian rule over Egypt. Cambyses II’s reign in Egypt was marked by efforts to establish Persian control over the country and integrate it into the Achaemenid administrative system.
Cambyses II’s rule in Egypt was characterized by a complex relationship with the native population. While some sources suggest that Cambyses showed respect for Egyptian traditions and religious institutions, other accounts portray him as a harsh ruler who desecrated temples and mistreated the Egyptian people. Cambyses II’s reign came to an end in 522 BC when he died under mysterious circumstances while returning to Persia to deal with a revolt.
2. Darius I (522–486 BC)
Darius I, also known as Darius the Great, succeeded Cambyses II and is often considered one of the most effective rulers of the Achaemenid Empire. Darius I worked to consolidate Persian control over Egypt and implemented several administrative reforms to improve the governance of the satrapy. He divided Egypt into administrative districts, or nomes, and appointed Persian officials to oversee the collection of taxes and the enforcement of laws.
Darius I also undertook several building projects in Egypt, including the restoration of temples and the completion of the canal connecting the Nile River to the Red Sea, which had been initiated by Necho II during the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. Darius I’s efforts to respect Egyptian traditions and promote economic development helped to maintain relative stability in Egypt during his reign. However, resistance to Persian rule persisted, and there were several revolts by the native Egyptian population.
3. Xerxes I (486–465 BC)
Xerxes I, the son of Darius I, succeeded his father as Pharaoh of Egypt. Xerxes is best known for his campaigns against Greece, including the famous battles of Thermopylae and Salamis, but his reign in Egypt was marked by increasing tension and resistance from the native population. Xerxes faced a major revolt in Egypt shortly after coming to power, which he eventually suppressed, but the rebellion highlighted the ongoing dissatisfaction with Persian rule.
Unlike his father, Xerxes I did not make significant efforts to accommodate Egyptian traditions, and his rule was characterized by a more repressive approach to governing the satrapy. He replaced Egyptian officials with Persian administrators and imposed heavy taxes on the population, which further fueled resentment among the Egyptians. Xerxes’ reign in Egypt was a time of growing unrest, and his policies contributed to the weakening of Persian control over the region.
4. Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC)
Artaxerxes I, the son of Xerxes I, succeeded his father as Pharaoh of Egypt. Artaxerxes I’s reign was marked by continued efforts to maintain Persian control over Egypt, but the satrapy remained a source of instability for the Achaemenid Empire. During his reign, Artaxerxes faced several revolts in Egypt, as the native population continued to resist foreign domination.
Despite the challenges he faced, Artaxerxes I made some efforts to restore stability in Egypt. He allowed the Egyptians to practice their religious traditions and supported the restoration of temples that had been damaged during previous conflicts. However, the heavy taxation imposed by the Persian administration and the presence of Persian officials in positions of power continued to be sources of discontent for the Egyptian people.
5. Darius II (424–405 BC)
Darius II, also known as Darius Nothus, succeeded Artaxerxes I as Pharaoh of Egypt. Darius II’s reign was marked by increasing instability and challenges to Persian authority in Egypt. The satrapy faced internal unrest, and the weakening of the Achaemenid Empire as a whole made it difficult for Darius II to maintain control over the region.
During his reign, Darius II faced a major revolt in Egypt led by Amyrtaeus, a native Egyptian ruler from the city of Sais. Amyrtaeus capitalized on the declining power of the Achaemenid Empire and the growing dissatisfaction among the Egyptian population to launch a successful rebellion against Persian rule. By the end of Darius II’s reign, the Persian hold on Egypt had weakened significantly, setting the stage for the eventual expulsion of the Persians.
6. Artaxerxes II (405–404 BC)
Artaxerxes II, the son of Darius II, was the last ruler of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty. His reign in Egypt was short-lived, as the rebellion led by Amyrtaeus continued to gain momentum. In 404 BC, Amyrtaeus successfully expelled the Persians from Egypt and declared himself Pharaoh, marking the end of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty and the establishment of native Egyptian rule under the Twenty-Eighth Dynasty.
Artaxerxes II’s inability to quell the rebellion in Egypt highlighted the declining power of the Achaemenid Empire and the growing desire among the Egyptian population for independence. The end of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty marked a brief period of native rule before Egypt would once again fall under Persian control during the Thirty-First Dynasty.
Persian Rule and Egyptian Resistance
The Twenty-Seventh Dynasty was a period of foreign domination in Egypt, characterized by the complex relationship between the Persian rulers and the native Egyptian population. The Achaemenid kings sought to integrate Egypt into their empire while also maintaining some aspects of traditional Egyptian governance. However, the heavy taxation, the presence of Persian officials, and the lack of respect for Egyptian customs by some rulers fueled resistance among the Egyptians.
Administrative Reforms and Economic Policies
The Persian rulers of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty implemented several administrative reforms to improve the governance of Egypt. Darius I, in particular, is credited with organizing Egypt into administrative districts, or nomes, and appointing Persian officials to oversee the collection of taxes and the enforcement of laws. The Persians also introduced a standardized system of weights and measures, which facilitated trade and economic development within the empire.
Despite these efforts, the economic policies of the Persian administration were often seen as oppressive by the Egyptian population. The heavy taxation imposed by the Persians placed a significant burden on the Egyptians, and the wealth extracted from Egypt was used to support the broader Achaemenid Empire. This economic exploitation, combined with the presence of foreign officials in positions of power, contributed to the growing resentment among the Egyptian people.
Cultural Interactions and Religious Policies
The relationship between the Persian rulers and the native Egyptian population was also shaped by cultural and religious factors. The Achaemenid kings adopted the title of Pharaoh and participated in some traditional Egyptian ceremonies in an attempt to legitimize their rule. Darius I, for example, supported the restoration of temples and made offerings to the gods, which helped to maintain a degree of stability during his reign.
However, not all Persian rulers were as accommodating to Egyptian traditions. Xerxes I, in particular, is remembered for his repressive policies and his lack of respect for Egyptian religious institutions. The replacement of Egyptian officials with Persian administrators and the perceived desecration of temples during Xerxes’ reign further fueled resistance to Persian rule. The cultural and religious policies of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty thus played a significant role in shaping the relationship between the Persians and the Egyptians, with periods of relative stability interspersed with episodes of rebellion and unrest.
The Decline and Fall of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty
The decline of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty was closely linked to the weakening of the Achaemenid Empire and the growing desire for independence among the Egyptian population. The Achaemenid Empire faced internal challenges, including revolts and succession crises, which weakened its ability to maintain control over distant territories like Egypt. The heavy taxation, cultural insensitivity, and presence of foreign officials further fueled discontent among the Egyptians, who sought to regain their independence.
The rebellion led by Amyrtaeus, a native Egyptian ruler from Sais, marked the culmination of these tensions. Amyrtaeus capitalized on the declining power of the Achaemenid Empire and led a successful revolt against the Persian administration. In 404 BC, he expelled the Persians from Egypt and declared himself Pharaoh, marking the end of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty and the beginning of the Twenty-Eighth Dynasty.
The end of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty represented a brief period of native Egyptian rule before Egypt would once again fall under Persian control during the Thirty-First Dynasty. Despite the challenges faced during this period of foreign domination, the legacy of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty is evident in the cultural interactions between the Persians and Egyptians, the administrative reforms introduced by the Achaemenids, and the enduring desire for independence among the Egyptian people.
Conclusion
The Twenty-Seventh Dynasty of Egypt, also known as the First Egyptian Satrapy, was a significant period in the history of ancient Egypt. Established by Cambyses II following the Persian conquest of Egypt, the dynasty marked the first time that Egypt became a province of a foreign empire. The Achaemenid rulers, including Cambyses II, Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, Darius II, and Artaxerxes II, sought to integrate Egypt into the Achaemenid Empire while also maintaining some aspects of traditional Egyptian governance.
The relationship between the Persian rulers and the native Egyptian population was complex, with periods of relative stability interspersed with episodes of rebellion and unrest. The heavy taxation, cultural insensitivity, and presence of foreign officials fueled resistance among the Egyptians, ultimately leading to the successful rebellion of Amyrtaeus and the end of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty.
The legacy of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty lies in its role as a period of cultural interaction between the Persians and Egyptians, the administrative reforms introduced by the Achaemenids, and the enduring desire for independence among the Egyptian people. The First Egyptian Satrapy represents a unique chapter in the history of ancient Egypt, characterized by foreign domination, resistance, and the struggle for autonomy.