The Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt (Dynasty XX), also known as the final chapter of the New Kingdom period, lasted from 1189 BC to 1077 BC. This era marks the third and last dynasty of the New Kingdom, characterized by both moments of strength and a gradual decline that eventually led to the end of Egypt’s imperial age. The Twentieth Dynasty is most famously associated with the reign of Ramesses III, a ruler who sought to emulate the successes of Ramesses II, but whose successors faced significant challenges that contributed to the weakening of the kingdom. In this article, we will explore the history, rulers, and achievements of the Twentieth Dynasty, shedding light on its significant events and challenges.

Historical Background of the Twentieth Dynasty

The Twentieth Dynasty began in the aftermath of the political turbulence that marked the end of the Nineteenth Dynasty. Setnakhte, the first pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty, rose to power during a time of instability, and his reign set the stage for the return to a semblance of stability. However, this period was also characterized by increasing external threats, economic decline, and internal social unrest. The Twentieth Dynasty represents a time of both attempts at maintaining power and the eventual collapse of Egypt’s influence as the New Kingdom drew to a close.

The Twentieth Dynasty is notable for its efforts to fend off external invasions, particularly from the Sea Peoples, and its struggles to maintain the vast territories that had been acquired during the height of the New Kingdom. Despite these challenges, the dynasty left behind a rich architectural legacy, including the grand mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu.

The Rulers of the Twentieth Dynasty

The Twentieth Dynasty was ruled by a series of pharaohs, many of whom bore the name Ramesses, in an attempt to evoke the legacy of the great Ramesses II. Below, we provide an overview of each ruler of the dynasty and their contributions to Egyptian history.

1. Setnakhte (c. 1189–1187 BC)

Setnakhte was the founder of the Twentieth Dynasty and came to power during a period of considerable chaos. The exact circumstances of his rise are unclear, but it is believed that Setnakhte was able to restore order after a power struggle that followed the decline of the Nineteenth Dynasty. His reign, though brief, was significant in reestablishing central authority and laying the foundation for his successor, Ramesses III. Setnakhte also worked to stabilize the economy and initiated building projects to restore temples and other monuments that had fallen into disrepair.

2. Ramesses III (c. 1186–1155 BC)

Ramesses III is often regarded as the last great pharaoh of the New Kingdom. His reign was marked by a series of military campaigns aimed at repelling invasions from the Sea Peoples and other external threats. Ramesses III successfully defended Egypt from these invaders, most notably in the Battle of the Delta, where he managed to prevent the Sea Peoples from penetrating Egypt’s borders.

In addition to his military achievements, Ramesses III is known for his extensive building projects, including the construction of his mortuary temple at Medinet Habu, which remains one of the best-preserved temples of the New Kingdom. Despite his successes, Ramesses III’s reign also saw the beginning of economic difficulties, including strikes by workers at Deir el-Medina, signaling growing discontent within Egyptian society.

3. Ramesses IV (c. 1155–1149 BC)

Ramesses IV, the son of Ramesses III, inherited a kingdom facing growing economic and social challenges. He attempted to continue his father’s legacy through ambitious building projects, including an expansion of the Temple of Khonsu at Karnak. Ramesses IV also organized an expedition to the Wadi Hammamat quarries to acquire stone for his monuments, but his reign was ultimately marked by limited success in addressing the underlying issues that plagued Egypt. The resources of the kingdom were dwindling, and his efforts to maintain the grandeur of earlier periods fell short.

4. Ramesses V (c. 1149–1145 BC)

Ramesses V faced significant difficulties during his reign, including a worsening economic situation and increasing pressure from Libyan tribes in the western delta. The Wilbour Papyrus, a tax document from his reign, provides insight into the economic conditions of the time, highlighting the struggles faced by the state in collecting taxes and managing resources. Ramesses V’s reign was relatively short, and his inability to effectively manage Egypt’s problems contributed to the ongoing decline of the New Kingdom.

5. Ramesses VI (c. 1145–1137 BC)

Ramesses VI succeeded his predecessor and faced many of the same challenges, including economic instability and external threats. He took over the tomb initially intended for Ramesses V in the Valley of the Kings, reflecting the declining resources available for royal burials. Despite these challenges, Ramesses VI managed to maintain a degree of stability, but his reign did little to reverse the overall decline of the kingdom.

6. Ramesses VII (c. 1137–1129 BC)

Ramesses VII’s reign is notable for the continued economic difficulties that Egypt faced. The period was marked by inflation and shortages of grain, as evidenced by surviving documents from the time. These economic challenges further strained the state’s ability to maintain control and provide for its people. Ramesses VII’s reign was relatively uneventful in terms of military or architectural achievements, as the kingdom’s focus was increasingly on managing internal crises.

7. Ramesses VIII (c. 1130–1129 BC)

Little is known about Ramesses VIII, and his reign appears to have been brief and largely insignificant. Few records of his rule have survived, and it is likely that he struggled to exert significant influence during a time of ongoing decline. The lack of major accomplishments during his reign reflects the weakened state of Egypt during the later years of the Twentieth Dynasty.

8. Ramesses IX (c. 1129–1111 BC)

Ramesses IX reigned for approximately 18 years and is known for his attempts to maintain stability in Egypt during a period of increasing unrest. His reign saw a rise in tomb robberies in the Valley of the Kings, which led to investigations and trials that are well-documented in surviving papyri. These records provide valuable insight into the social and economic conditions of the time. Ramesses IX also worked on restoring temples and attempted to maintain the religious and cultural traditions of the New Kingdom, but his efforts were hampered by the declining power of the central government.

9. Ramesses X (c. 1111–1107 BC)

Ramesses X’s reign was marked by continued instability and declining central authority. There is little evidence of major achievements during his rule, and records from this period suggest that Egypt was struggling to maintain control over its territories. The increasing incursions by Libyan tribes and the growing power of local officials further weakened the authority of the pharaoh, contributing to the overall decline of the Twentieth Dynasty.

10. Ramesses XI (c. 1107–1077 BC)

Ramesses XI was the last pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty, and his reign marked the end of the New Kingdom. During his rule, Egypt faced significant challenges, including internal divisions, economic decline, and the loss of control over Nubia and other territories. The power of the high priests of Amun at Thebes grew substantially, effectively dividing the country into separate spheres of influence. The period known as the “Wehem Mesut” or “Renaissance” was an attempt by Ramesses XI to restore order, but it ultimately failed to prevent the collapse of central authority. By the end of his reign, Egypt had entered the Third Intermediate Period, a time of fragmentation and weakened central power.

Military Campaigns and Foreign Relations

The Twentieth Dynasty faced numerous external threats, particularly from the Sea Peoples and Libyan tribes. Ramesses III’s military campaigns were crucial in defending Egypt from these invasions, but the dynasty’s ability to maintain its territories gradually weakened over time.

The Invasions of the Sea Peoples

One of the most significant events of the Twentieth Dynasty was the invasion of the Sea Peoples, a confederation of maritime raiders who threatened the stability of the eastern Mediterranean. Ramesses III successfully repelled these invasions, most notably at the Battle of the Delta, where the Egyptian navy and land forces managed to defeat the Sea Peoples and prevent them from establishing a foothold in Egypt. These victories were crucial in maintaining Egypt’s independence, but the cost of these campaigns strained the kingdom’s resources.

Relations with Nubia and Libya

Throughout the Twentieth Dynasty, Egypt faced challenges in maintaining control over its territories in Nubia and defending its borders against Libyan incursions. The weakening of central authority and the economic difficulties of the period made it increasingly difficult to project power beyond Egypt’s borders. By the end of the dynasty, Egypt had effectively lost control over Nubia, and Libyan tribes had established themselves within the Nile Delta, further contributing to the decline of the New Kingdom.

Religious and Cultural Developments

The Twentieth Dynasty saw a continuation of the religious traditions established during the New Kingdom, with a particular emphasis on the worship of Amun. However, the growing power of the priesthood of Amun at Thebes ultimately contributed to the weakening of the pharaoh’s authority.

The Rise of the Priesthood of Amun

During the reign of Ramesses XI, the high priests of Amun at Thebes gained significant power, effectively creating a parallel authority to that of the pharaoh. The increasing influence of the priesthood was a major factor in the decline of the Twentieth Dynasty, as it undermined the central authority of the pharaoh and contributed to the fragmentation of Egypt. By the end of the dynasty, the high priests of Amun had become the de facto rulers of Upper Egypt, while the pharaoh’s control was limited to the north.

Architectural Achievements

Despite the challenges faced by the Twentieth Dynasty, several notable architectural achievements were made during this period. The mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu is one of the most impressive structures from the New Kingdom and provides valuable insight into the art, architecture, and religious practices of the time. The temple features extensive reliefs depicting Ramesses III’s military victories and his devotion to the gods, emphasizing his role as the protector of Egypt.

Tomb Construction in the Valley of the Kings

The pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty continued to be buried in the Valley of the Kings, although the quality and grandeur of their tombs declined compared to those of earlier dynasties. The economic difficulties of the period meant that fewer resources were available for the construction and decoration of royal tombs. The tomb of Ramesses III (KV11) is one of the most notable tombs from this period, featuring intricate reliefs and well-preserved wall paintings that depict scenes from the afterlife.

Decline of the Twentieth Dynasty

The decline of the Twentieth Dynasty was a gradual process, marked by a combination of internal and external factors that weakened the central authority of the pharaoh and led to the end of the New Kingdom.

Economic Challenges

The economic difficulties that began during the reign of Ramesses III continued throughout the Twentieth Dynasty. The cost of military campaigns, combined with declining agricultural productivity and increasing corruption, led to a weakened economy. The strikes by workers at Deir el-Medina during the reign of Ramesses III were an early indication of the growing discontent within Egyptian society, as the state struggled to provide for its people.

Internal Division and the Rise of Local Powers

As the power of the central government declined, local officials and the priesthood of Amun gained increasing autonomy. The division of power between the pharaoh and the high priests of Amun at Thebes effectively split Egypt into two separate regions, with the pharaoh’s authority limited to Lower Egypt. This fragmentation of power made it difficult for the pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty to maintain control over the entire country and contributed to the eventual collapse of the New Kingdom.

The End of the Twentieth Dynasty

The death of Ramesses XI marked the end of the Twentieth Dynasty and the New Kingdom. With the central authority weakened and the country divided, Egypt entered the Third Intermediate Period, a time characterized by political fragmentation and the rise of regional powers. The high priests of Amun continued to rule Upper Egypt, while Lower Egypt was governed by a series of local rulers and foreign powers. The once-great empire of the New Kingdom had come to an end, and Egypt would never again reach the same heights of power and influence.

Legacy of the Twentieth Dynasty

The Twentieth Dynasty represents the final chapter of the New Kingdom, a period that was marked by both moments of strength and a gradual decline that led to the end of Egypt’s imperial age. Despite the challenges faced by the pharaohs of this dynasty, their efforts to defend Egypt from external threats and maintain the traditions of the New Kingdom left a lasting legacy.

Military Achievements

The successful defense of Egypt against the Sea Peoples by Ramesses III is one of the most significant military achievements of the Twentieth Dynasty. These victories helped to preserve Egypt’s independence during a time of great upheaval in the eastern Mediterranean and demonstrated the resilience of the Egyptian military, even as the kingdom faced internal challenges.

Architectural Contributions

The architectural contributions of the Twentieth Dynasty, particularly the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu, provide valuable insight into the art, architecture, and religious practices of the late New Kingdom. These monuments serve as a testament to the grandeur of the New Kingdom and the enduring legacy of the pharaohs who sought to maintain their connection to the gods and their role as protectors of Egypt.

The Transition to the Third Intermediate Period

The Twentieth Dynasty’s decline set the stage for the Third Intermediate Period, a time of political fragmentation and regional rule. The growing power of the high priests of Amun and the division of Egypt into separate regions marked the beginning of a new era in Egyptian history, one that would be characterized by a loss of central authority and the influence of foreign powers. Despite this decline, the legacy of the New Kingdom and its achievements continued to shape Egyptian culture and identity for centuries to come.

Conclusion

The Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt was a pivotal period that marked the end of the New Kingdom and the beginning of a new chapter in Egyptian history. From the military victories of Ramesses III to the growing power of the priesthood of Amun, the Twentieth Dynasty was a time of both strength and decline. The challenges faced by the pharaohs of this dynasty, including economic difficulties, external invasions, and internal divisions, ultimately led to the collapse of central authority and the end of Egypt’s imperial age.

Despite its decline, the Twentieth Dynasty left a lasting legacy through its military achievements, architectural contributions, and the enduring cultural and religious traditions of the New Kingdom. The mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu and the tombs in the Valley of the Kings stand as enduring symbols of the power and grandeur of the New Kingdom, even as Egypt transitioned into a new era of fragmentation and regional rule.